Rough Notes:

Sky deity

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Jupiter, the sky father of Roman religion and mythology

The sky often has important religious significance. Many religions, both polytheistic and monotheistic, have deities associated with the sky.

The daylit sky deities are typically distinct from the night-time sky (or “heaven of the stars”) deities. Stith Thompson‘s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature reflects this by separating the category of “Sky-god” (A210) from that of “Star-god” (A250).

Daytime-gods and Nighttime-gods may also be deities of an “upper world“[disambiguation needed] (or “celestial world”), opposed to a “netherworld” (or “chthonic realm”) ruled by other gods (for example, Sky-gods Zeus and Hera rule the celestial realm in ancient Greece, while the chthonic realm is ruled by Hades and Persephone), or of an upper world and netherworld respectively.

Any masculine sky god is often also king of the gods, taking the position of patriarch within a pantheon. Such king gods are collectively categorised as “Sky father” deities, with a polarity between sky and earth often being expressed by pairing a “Sky father” god with an “Earth mother” goddess (pairings of a Sky mother with an Earth father are less frequent). A main sky goddess is often the “queen” (“of heaven“, for example).

Gods may rule the sky as a pair (for example, ancient Semitic [supreme] god El and the sky goddess Asherah whom he was most likely paired with).[1]

Sky father

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Jupiter, Ancient Roman sky deity, and his relative Thetis

In comparative mythology, sky father is a term for a recurring concept of a sky god who is addressed as a “father”, often the father of a pantheon. The concept of “sky father” may also be taken to include Sun gods with similar characteristics. The concept is complementary to an “earth mother“.

“Sky Father” is a direct translation of the Vedic Dyaus Pita, etymologically descended from the same Proto-Indo-European deity name as the Greek Zeus Pater and Roman Jupiter, all of which are reflexes of the same Proto-Indo-European deity’s name, *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr.[1] While there are numerous parallels adduced from outside of Indo-European mythology, the concept is far from universal (e.g. Egyptian mythology has a “Heavenly Mother“).

In historical mythology[edit]

  • In Mesopotamian mythology, An or Anu, (AN, ???) Sumerian for “heaven, sky”, is the father deity of the Sumerian and Assyro-Babylonian pantheon and is also the earliest attested Sky Father deity.
  • Indo-European mythology
    • In the early Vedic pantheon, Dyaus Pita “Sky Father” appears already in a marginal position, but in comparative mythology is often reconstructed as having stood alongside Prithvi Mata “Earth Mother” in prehistoric times.
    • In Ancient Rome, the sky father, or sky god, was Jupiter (Zeus, Ζεύς, in Ancient Greece), often depicted by birds, usually the eagle or hawk, and clouds or other sky phenomena. Nicknames included “Sky God” and “Cloud Gatherer”. While many attribute a sky god to the sun, Jupiter ruled mainly over the clouds and the heavens, while Apollo is referred to as the god of the sun. Apollo was, however, the son of Jupiter.
  • In Māori mythology, Ranginui was the sky father. In this story, the sky father and earth mother Papatūānuku, embraced and had divine children.
  • Wākea is a sky father in Hawaiian mythology.
  • In Native American mythology and Native American religion, the sky father is a common character in creation myths.[2]
  • In China, in Daoism, 天 (tian), meaning sky, is associated with light, the positive, male, etc., whereas 地 (di) meaning earth or land, is associated with dark, the negative, female, etc.
  • Zhu, Tian Zhu 主,天主 (lit. “Lord” or “Lord in Heaven”) is translated from the English word, “Lord”, which is a formal title of the Christian God in Mainland China’s Christian churches.
    • Tian 天 (lit. “sky” or “heaven”) is used to refer to the sky as well as a personification of it. Whether it possesses sentience in the embodiment of an omnipotent, omniscient being is a difficult question for linguists and philosophers.
  • Tengri “sky”, chief god of the early religion of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples.
  • In Ancient Egypt, Horus was ruler of the sky. He was shown as a male humanoid with the head of a falcon. It is not uncommon for birds to represent the sky in ancient religions, due to their ability to fly. However, in Egyptian mythology the sky was perceived as the goddess Nut.
  • In what is now Colombia, the Muisca (Muisca mythology) used to worship Bochica as the sky father.[3]
  • “Taevaisa” (Taevas = sky, isa = father) is the word by which adherents in Estonia of the Maausk (faith of the land) and the Taara native beliefs refer to God. Although both branches of the original Estonian religion – which are largely just different ways of approaching what is in essence the same thing, to the extent that it remains extant – are pantheistic, heaven has a definite and important place in the ancient pre-Christian Estonian belief system. All things are sacred for those of the faith of the land, but the idea of a sky father – among other “sacrednesses” – is something all Estonians are well aware of. In newer history, after the arrival of Christianity, the ideas of a sky father and “a father who art in heaven” have become somewhat conflated. One way or another, the phrase “taevaisa” remains in common use in Estonia.
  • The Liber Sancti Iacobi by Aymericus Picaudus tells that the Basques called God Urcia, a word found in compounds for the names of some week days and meteorological phenomena.[4][5] The current usage is Jaungoikoa, that can be interpreted as “the lord of above”. The imperfect grammaticality of the word leads some to conjecture that it is a folk etymology applied to jainkoa, now considered a shorter synonym.

“Nomadic” hypothesis[edit]

In late 19th century opinions on comparative religion, in a line of thinking that begins with Friedrich Engels and J. J. Bachofen, and which received major literary promotion in The Golden Bough by James G. Frazer, it was believed that worship of a sky father was characteristic of nomadic peoples, and that worship of an earth mother similarly characterised farming peoples.

This view was stylized as reflecting not only a conflict of nomadism vs. agriculturalism but of “patriarchy” vs. “matriarchy“, and has blossomed into a late ideological in certain currents of feminist spirituality and feminist archaeologyin the 1970s.[clarification needed]

Reception in modern culture[edit]

The theory about earth goddesses, sky father, and patriarchal invaders was a stirring tale that fired various imaginations. The story was important in literature, and was referred to in various ways by important poets and novelists, including T. S. Eliot, D. H. Lawrence, James Joyce, and most influentially, Robert Graves.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. Jump up^ dyaus in Vedic still retained the meaning “sky”, while the Greek Zeus had become a proper name exclusively.
  2. Jump up^ Judson, Katherine Berry (April 30, 2009). Myths and Legends of California and the Old Southwest. BiblioLife. pp. 5–7. ISBN 0-559-06288-5.
  3. Jump up^ Paul Herrmann, Michael Bullock (1954). Conquest by Man. Harper & Brothers. pp. 186. OCLC 41501509.
  4. Jump up^ Trask, L. The History of Basque (1997) Routledge ISBN 0-415-13116-2
  5. Jump up^ Jose M. de Barandiaran Mitologia Vasca (1996) Txertoa ISBN 84-7148-117-0